Voice and Access in AI: Global AI Majority Participation in Artificial Intelligence Development and Governance

VOICE AND ACCESS IN AI: GLOBAL AI MAJORITY PARTICIPATION IN ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE DEVELOPMENT AND GOVERNANCE WHITEPAPER October 2024 Authors: Sumaya N. Adan, Robert Trager, Kayla Blomquist, Claire Dennis, Gemma Edom, Lucia Velasco, Cecil Abungu, Ben Garfinkel, Julian Jacobs, Chinasa T. Okolo, Boxi Wu, Jai Vipra

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         3 Lehdonvirta, Wu, and Hawkins, ‘Compute North vs. Compute South’. 2 Vili Lehdonvirta, Boxi Wu, and Zoe Hawkins, ‘Compute North vs. Compute South: The Uneven Possibilities of Compute-Based AI Governance Around the Globe’, in Proceedings of the 2024 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society (AIES ’24), 2024, https://osf.io/8yp7z/download. 1 ITU, ‘2023 AI for Good Global Summit Snapshot Report’, 2023, https://s41721.pcdn.co/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/SNAPSHOT-REPORT-2023-FINAL.pdf.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              4 Xiangyu Qi et al., ‘AI Risk Management Should Incorporate Both Safety and Security’ (arXiv, 29 May 2024), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2405.19524; Ken Huang, ‘AI Safety vs. AI Security: Navigating the Differences’, Cloud Security Alliance (blog), 19 March 2024, https://cloudsecurityalliance.org/blog/2024/03/19/ai-safety-vs-ai-security-navigating-the-comm onality-and-differences.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               7 Ana Valdivia, ‘Silicon Valley and the Environmental Costs of AI’, Political Economy Research Centre (blog), 5 December 2022, https://www.perc.org.uk/project_posts/silicon-valley-and-the-environmental-costs-of-ai/. 6 Steven Gonzalez Monserrate, ‘The Cloud Is Material: On the Environmental Impacts of Computation and Data Storage’, MIT Case Studies in Social and Ethical Responsibilities of Computing Winter 2022 (2022), https://doi.org/10.21428/2c646de5.031d4553. 5 Huang, ‘AI Safety vs. AI Security.’                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  9 Sareeta Amrute, Ranjit Singh, and Rigoberto Lara Guzmán, ‘A Primer on AI in/from the Majority World: An Empirical Site and a Standpoint’ (Data & Society, 2022), https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4199467. 8 Paola Ricaurte, ‘Ethics for the Majority World: AI and the Question of Violence at Scale’, Media, Culture & Society 44, no. 4 (1 May 2022): 726–45, https://doi.org/10.1177/01634437221099612.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         11 Simon Ofori Ametepey et al., ‘The Impact of AI in Sustainable Development Goal Implementation: A Delphi Study’, Sustainability 16, no. 9 (2024): 3858, https://doi.org/10.3390/su16093858. 10 Jingchen Zhao and Beatriz Gómez Fariñas, ‘Artificial Intelligence and Sustainable Decisions’, European Business Organization Law Review 24, no. 1 (2023): 1–39, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40804-022-00262-2.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     17 Jai Vipra and Sarah Myers West, ‘Computational Power and AI’ (AI Now Institute, 27 September 2023), https://ainowinstitute.org/publication/policy/compute-and-ai. 16 Jaime Sevilla and Edu Roldán, ‘Training Compute of Frontier AI Models Grows by 4-5x per Year’ (Epoch AI, 28 May 2024), https://epochai.org/blog/training-compute-of-frontier-ai-models-grows-by-4-5x-per-year. 15 ITU, ‘Measuring Digital Development: Facts and Figures 2023’, 3. 14 ITU, ‘Measuring Digital Development: Facts and Figures 2023’, 2. 13 ITU, ‘Measuring Digital Development: Facts and Figures 2023’, 2. 12 ITU, ‘Measuring Digital Development: Facts and Figures 2023’, 2023, 2, https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-d/opb/ind/d-ind-ict_mdd-2023-1-pdf-e.pdf.                                                                                                                  21 Valdivia, ‘Silicon Valley and the Environmental Costs of AI’. 20 Monserrate, ‘The Cloud Is Material’. 19 Vipra and West, ‘Computational Power and AI’. 18 ‘Meet the French Startup Hoping to Take on OpenAI’, The Economist, 26 February 2024, https://www.economist.com/business/2024/02/26/meet-the-french-startup-hoping-to-take-on-op enai.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          25 Roberto Gozalo-Brizuela and Eduardo C. Garrido-Merchan, ‘ChatGPT Is Not All You Need. A State of the Art Review of Large Generative AI Models’ (arXiv, 11 January 2023), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2301.04655. 24 Lehdonvirta, Wu, and Hawkins, ‘Compute North vs. Compute South’. 23 Vili Lehdonvirta, Boxi Wu, and Zoe Hawkins, ‘Cloud Empires’ Physical Footprint: How Trade and Security Politics Shape the Global Expansion of U.S. and Chinese Data Centre Infrastructures’ (SSRN, 20 December 2023), https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4670764. 22 Peter Mell and Tim Grance, ‘The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing’ (National Institute of Standards and Technology, 28 September 2011), https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-145.                                                                                                                                    28 Elizabeth Seger et al., ‘Open-Sourcing Highly Capable Foundation Models: An Evaluation of Risks, Benefits, and Alternative Methods for Pursuing Open-Source Objectives’ (Centre for the Governance of AI, 2023), https://cdn.governance.ai/Open-Sourcing_Highly_Capable_Foundation_Models_2023_GovAI.pd f. 27 ‘The Data and AI Company’, Databricks, 13 October 2023, https://www.databricks.com/. 26 ‘Top Large Language Models Reshaping the Open-Source Arena’, Deci (blog), 27 March 2024, https://web.archive.org/web/20240609234857/https://deci.ai/blog/list-of-large-language-modelsin-open-source/.

                                                                                                                                                                                             Bias                                                       42 Damián Blasi, Antonios Anastasopoulos, and Graham Neubig, ‘Systematic Inequalities in Language Technology Performance across the World’s Languages’ (arXiv, 13 October 2021), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2110.06733. 41 Ziwei Ji et al., ‘Survey of Hallucination in Natural Language Generation’, ACM Computing Surveys 55, no. 12 (2023): 248:1-248:38, https://doi.org/10.1145/3571730. 40 Idris Akinade et al., ‘Varepsilon Kú Mask: Integrating Yorùbá Cultural Greetings into Machine Translation’, in Proceedings of the First Workshop on Cross-Cultural Considerations in NLP (C3NLP), 2023, 1–7, https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/2023.c3nlp-1.1. 39 NLLB Team et al., ‘No Language Left Behind: Scaling Human-Centered Machine Translation’ (arXiv, 25 August 2022), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2207.04672. 38 Fan et al., ‘Beyond English-Centric Multilingual Machine Translation.’ 37 Angela Fan et al., ‘Beyond English-Centric Multilingual Machine Translation’ (arXiv, 21 October 2020), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2010.11125. 36 Changhan Wang et al., ‘VoxPopuli: A Large-Scale Multilingual Speech Corpus for Representation Learning, Semi-Supervised Learning and Interpretation’ (arXiv, 27 July 2021), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2101.00390.                                                                                                                           Homogenization                                                                                                                                                            46 Rishi Bommasani and Percy Liang, ‘Reflections on Foundation Models’, Stanford Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (blog), 18 October 2021, https://hai.stanford.edu/news/reflections-foundation-models. 45 Eun Seo Jo and Timnit Gebru, ‘Lessons from Archives: Strategies for Collecting Sociocultural Data in Machine Learning’, in Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, FAT* ’20, 2020, 306–16, https://doi.org/10.1145/3351095.3372829; Joy Buolamwini and Timnit Gebru, ‘Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification’, in Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency (PMLR, 2018), 77–91, http://proceedings.mlr.press/v81/buolamwini18a.html. 44 Emily Sheng et al., ‘The Woman Worked as a Babysitter: On Biases in Language Generation’, in Proceedings of the 2019 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing and the 9th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (EMNLP-IJCNLP), 2019, 3407–12, https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/D19-1339; Abubakar Abid, Maheen Farooqi, and James Zou, ‘Persistent Anti-Muslim Bias in Large Language Models’, in Proceedings of the 2021 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society, AIES ’21, 2021, 298–306, https://doi.org/10.1145/3461702.3462624. 43 Maribeth Rauh et al., ‘Characteristics of Harmful Text: Towards Rigorous Benchmarking of Language Models’ (arXiv, 28 October 2022), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2206.08325.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  For example, Nigeria has established partnerships with Microsoft to equip citizens with digital skills, while partnerships with Google have trained nearly eight million people in Latin America in digital skills since 2017. 50 Chinasa T Okolo, ‘AI in the Global South: Opportunities and Challenges Towards More Inclusive Governance’, International Journal of Innovative Research in Arts, Education and Technology 2, no. 1 (2021), https://internationalpolicybrief.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/ARTICLE-9.pdf. 49 Katherine Bindley, ‘The Fight for AI Talent: Pay Million-Dollar Packages and Buy Whole Teams’, The Wall Street Journal, 27 March 2024, https://www.wsj.com/tech/ai/the-fight-for-ai-talent-pay-million-dollar-packages-and-buy-whole -teams-c370de2b. 48 A. Stevie Bergman et al., ‘Representation in AI Evaluations’, in Proceedings of the 2023 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, FAccT ’23, 2023, 519–33, https://doi.org/10.1145/3593013.3594019. 47 Rishi Bommasani et al., ‘On the Opportunities and Risks of Foundation Models’ (arXiv, 12 July 2022), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2108.07258.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        CyberScoop     https://cyberscoop.com/dhs-homeland-threat-assessment/                   https://demos.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Generating-Democracy-Report-1.pdf 54 The UK AI Safety Institute prioritizes pre-deployment evaluations for dual-use capabilities, including aiding in cyber-criminality, biological or chemical science, human persuasion, large-scale disinformation campaigns, and weapons acquisition. It will also conduct post-deployment evaluations to investigate psychological impacts, privacy harms, manipulation and persuasion, biased outputs and reasoning, impacts on democracy and trust in institutions, and systemic discrimination. ‘Introducing the AI Safety Institute’ (AI Safety Institute, 2023), https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ai-safety-institute-overview/introducing-the-ai-s afety-institute. 53 To date, the UK, US, Japan among others have all launched national AI-safety institutes. Julian Jacobs, ‘National Approaches to AI Safety Diverge in Focus’, OMFIF (blog), 25 June 2024, https://www.omfif.org/2024/06/national-approaches-to-ai-safety-diverge-in-focus/. 52 Alan Chan et al., ‘The Limits of Global Inclusion in AI Development’ (arXiv, 1 February 2021), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2102.01265.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          60 ‘G7 Hiroshima Process on Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI)’ (OECD, 6 September 2023), https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2023/09/g7-hiroshima-process-on-generative-artificial-in telligence-ai_8d19e746.html. 59 Chris Olaoluwa Ògúnmddé, ‘The G-7’s Embrace of the Global South Was All Talk, No Substance’, World Politics Review (blog), 26 May 2023, https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/g7-summit-2023-politics-economy-africa-global-south/. 58 ‘OECD’s Live Repository of AI Strategies & Policies’, OECD, accessed 16 May 2024, https://oecd.ai/en/dashboards. 57 Cecil Abungu, Michelle Malonza, and Sumaya Nur Adan, ‘Can Apparent Bystanders Distinctively Shape an Outcome? Global South Countries and Global Catastrophic Risk-Focused Governance of Artificial Intelligence’ (arXiv, 7 December 2023), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2312.04616.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      64 Robert Stankey et al., ‘Commerce Department Proposes Cybersecurity/AI Reporting and “KYC” Requirements for Certain Cloud Providers’, Davis Wright Tremaine (blog), 14 February 2024, https://www.dwt.com/blogs/artificial-intelligence-law-advisor/2024/02/commerce-departmentproposes-kyc-ai-rules-for-iaas. 63 Gregory C. Allen, Emily Benson, and Margot Putnam, ‘Japan and the Netherlands Announce Plans for New Export Controls on Semiconductor Equipment’, Center for Strategic & International Studies, 10 April 2023, https://www.csis.org/analysis/japan-and-netherlands-announce-plans-new-export-controls-se miconductor-equipment. 62 Kirti Gupta, Chris Borges, and Andrea Leonard Palazzi, ‘Collateral Damage: The Domestic Impact of U.S. Semiconductor Export Controls’, Center for Strategic & International Studies, 9 July 2024, https://www.csis.org/analysis/collateral-damage-domestic-impact-us-semiconductor-export-co ntrols; ‘Commerce Implements New Export Controls on Advanced Computing and Semiconductor Manufacturing Items to the People’s Republic of China (PRC)’ (U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Industry and Security, 7 October 2022), https://www.bis.doc.gov/index.php/documents/about-bis/newsroom/press-releases/3158-202210-07-bis-press-release-advanced-computing-and-semiconductor-manufacturing-controls-final /file 61 Marie-Therese Png, ‘At the Tensions of South and North: Critical Roles of Global South Stakeholders in AI Governance’, in Proceedings of the 2022 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency, FAccT ’22, 2022, 1434–45, https://doi.org/10.1145/3531146.3533200.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         67 Will Henshall, ‘E.U.’s AI Regulation Could Be Softened After Pushback’, TIME, 22 November 2023, https://time.com/6338602/eu-ai-regulation-foundation-models/.;    ‘Understanding China’s AI Strategy’ (Center for a New American Security, 6 February 2019) https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/understanding-chinas-ai-strategy 66 Bill Drexel and Hannah Kelley, ‘Behind China’s Plans to Build AI for the World’, Politico, 30 November 2023, https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2023/11/30/china-global-ai-plans-00129160. 65 ‘“Our Motto ‘the World Is Bigger than Five’ Is the Biggest-Ever Rise against Global Injustice”’, Presidency of the Republic of Türkiye, 1 October 2018, https://www.tccb.gov.tr/en/news/542/89052/our-motto-the-world-is-bigger-than-five-is-the-bigg est-ever-rise-against-global-injustice; Berdal Aral, ‘“The World Is Bigger than Five”: A Salutary Manifesto of Turkey’s New International Outlook’, Insight Turkey, 2019, https://doi.org/10.25253/99.2019214.05.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        The Wealth of Nations  70 Jane Vaynman and Tristan A. Volpe, ‘Dual Use Deception: How Technology Shapes Cooperation in International Relations’, International Organization 77, no. 3 (2023): 599–632, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020818323000140. 69 Ilaria Carrozza, Nicholas Marsh, and Gergory M. Reichberg, ‘Dual-Use AI Technology in China, the US and the EU: Strategic Implications for the Balance of Power’ (Peace Research Institute Oslo, 2022) https://www.prio.org/publications/13150; Stefka Schmid, Thea Riebe, and Christian Reuter, ‘Dual-Use and Trustworthy? A Mixed Methods Analysis of AI Diffusion Between Civilian and Defense R&D’, Science and Engineering Ethics 28, no. 2 (2022): 12, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-022-00364-7. 68As defined in the Executive Order on the Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence, the term ‘dual-use foundation model’ means ‘an AI model that is trained on broad data; generally uses self-supervision; contains at least tens of billions of parameters; is applicable across a wide range of contexts; and that exhibits, or could be easily modified to exhibit, high levels of performance at tasks that pose a serious risk to security, national economic security, national public health or safety, or any combination of those matters’. See: ‘Executive Order on the Safe, Secure, and Trustworthy Development and Use of Artificial Intelligence’ (The White House, 30 October 2023), https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2023/10/30/executive-order-on -the-safe-secure-and-trustworthy-development-and-use-of-artificial-intelligence/.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           73 Recently, for instance, the CEO of Stability AI, previously valued at $1 billion, left the company along with other departures of top management, seemingly signaling that the company’s business model might not prove successful, at least in the short term. Similarly, Microsoft recently hired most of the staff of Inflection AI, which was previously valued at $4 billion. See Kenrick Cai and Iain Martin, ‘Stability AI Founder Emad Mostaque Tanked His Billion-Dollar Startup’, 30 March 2024, https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrickcai/2024/03/29/how-stability-ais-founder-tanked-his-billio n-dollar-startup/ and Shirin Ghaffary and Rachel Metz, ‘Microsoft to Pay Inflection AI $650 Million After Scooping Up Most of Staff’, Bloomberg, 21 March 2024, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-03-21/microsoft-to-pay-inflection-ai-650-millio n-after-scooping-up-most-of-staff. 72 Tom Wheeler, ‘The Three Challenges of AI Regulation’, Brookings, 15 June 2023, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-three-challenges-of-ai-regulation/                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         Developing Systems Locally from Scratch                                                                                                             77          76 Buchanan, ‘The AI Triad and What It Means for National Security Strategy’. 75                     https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/the-ai-triad-and-what-it-means-for-national-security-strategy/ 74 2Africa Deployment Is Underway’, 2Africa Cable, accessed 2 May 2024, https://www.2africacable.net.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 84 Kulp et al., ‘Hardware-Enabled Governance Mechanisms’. 83 Gabriel Kulp et al., ‘Hardware-Enabled Governance Mechanisms: Developing Technical Solutions to Exempt Items Otherwise Classified Under Export Control Classification Numbers 3A090 and 4A090’ (RAND Corporation, 18 January 2024), https://www.rand.org/pubs/working_papers/WRA3056-1.html. 82 Paul Scharre, ‘Future-Proofing Frontier AI Regulation: Projecting Future Compute for Frontier AI Models’ (Center for a New American Security, March 2024), https://www.cnas.org/publications/reports/future-proofing-frontier-ai-regulation; Samuel Hammond, ‘The Scramble for AI Computing Power’, American Affairs 8, no. 2 (2024), https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2024/05/the-scramble-for-ai-computing-power/. 81 Sastry et al., ‘Computing Power and the Governance of Artificial Intelligence’.  Keith Strier, Jack Clark, and Sana Khareghani, ‘Measuring Compute Capacity: A Critical Step to Capturing AI’s Full Economic Potential’, OECD.AI Policy Observatory (blog), 8 February 2022, https://oecd.ai/en/wonk/ai-compute-capacity. 79 Chuan Li, ‘OpenAI’s GPT-3 Language Model: A Technical Overview’, Lambda (blog), 3 June 2020, https://lambdalabs.com/blog/demystifying-gpt-3. 78 Girish Sastry et al., ‘Computing Power and the Governance of Artificial Intelligence’ (arXiv, 13 February 2024), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2402.08797.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    88 ‘The Global AI Talent Tracker 2.0’, MacroPolo, accessed 11 May 2024, https://macropolo.org/digital-projects/the-global-ai-talent-tracker/. 87 Felix Onuah, ‘Google to Train 20,000 Nigerians in Digital Skills’, Reuters, 15 August 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/google-train-20000-nigerians-digital-skills-2023-08-15/. 86 Examples include the AI Research and Big Data Analytics Center (Pusat Riset AI dan Big Data) at Padjadjaran University, as well as projects at Bandung Institute of Technology (ITB) and the University of Brawijaya, and collaborations with industries players including NVIDIA, Tokopedia, and Bukalapak. See ‘Pusat Riset Kecerdasan Artifisial dan Big Data’, The University of Padjadjaran, n.d., https://informatika.unpad.ac.id/pusat-riset-kecerdasan-artifisial-dan-big-data/; ‘Tokopedia-UI AI Center’, n.d., https://tokopedia-ai.cs.ui.ac.id/; Webmaster Team ITB Direktorat Sistem dan Teknologi Informasi, ‘Pusat Artificial Intelligence’, Institut Teknologi Bandung, n.d., https://www.itb.ac.id/pusat-artificial-intelligence. 85 Shakir Mohamed, Marie-Therese Png, and William Isaac, ‘Decolonial AI: Decolonial Theory as Sociotechnical Foresight in Artificial Intelligence’, Philosophy & Technology 33, no. 4 (1 December 2020): 659–84, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-020-00405-8.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  95 Karen Hao, ‘A New Vision of Artificial Intelligence for the People’, MIT Technology Review, 22 April 2022, https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/04/22/1050394/artificial-intelligence-for-the-people/. 94 Donavyn Coffey, ‘Mori Are Trying to Save Their Language from Big Tech’, Wired, 20 April 2021, https://www.wired.com/story/maori-language-tech/. 93 The AI for Development Programme, announced at the UK’s AI Safety Summit in November 2023, is an $80 million collaboration to support homegrown AI expertise and computing power in Africa. It seeks to support the continent’s long-term development. The initiative will help to fund training and fellowships in AI in African universities, foster responsible AI governance, and invest in ‘homegrown’ datasets that accurately represent the African continent. See Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, ‘UK Unites with Global Partners to Accelerate Development Using AI’, GOV.UK, 1 November 2023, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-unites-with-global-partners-to-accelerate-developme nt-using-ai.. 92 ‘Ghana Natural Language Processing (NLP)’, n.d., https://ghananlp.org/. 91 ‘Masakhane’, n.d., https://www.masakhane.io/. 90 Abdullahi Tsanni, ‘This Company Is Building AI for African Languages’, MIT Technology Review, 17 November 2023, https://www.technologyreview.com/2023/11/17/1083637/lelapa-ai-african-languages-vulavula/. 89 Remco Zwetsloot, Roxanne Heston, and Zachary Arnold, ‘Strengthening the U.S. AI Workforce’ (Center for Security and Emerging Technology, 2019), https://doi.org/10.51593/20190003.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               ‘International Data Transfers’, Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO, 19 October 2023), https://ico.org.uk/for-organisations/data-protection-and-the-eu/data-protection-and-the-eu-in-d etail/the-uk-gdpr/international-data-transfers/.; ‘US Data Transfers - Update’, Dentons (blog), 28 October 2022, https://www.dentons.com/en/insights/articles/2022/october/28/us-data-transfers. 96 There is also a danger of exploitation in the data-labelling industry itself. Frontier AI firms often rely on low-wage workers from sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia; Madhumita Murgia, ‘AI’s New Workforce: The Data-Labelling Industry Spreads Globally’, Financial Times, 24 July 2019, https://www.ft.com/content/56dde36c-aa40-11e9-984c-fac8325aaa04. The risks of exploitation are significant; Samasource content moderators in Nairobi recently called for an investigation into the exploitative conditions they faced while reviewing content to train OpenAI’s ChatGPT; Niamh Rowe, ‘“It’s Destroyed Me Completely”: Kenyan Moderators Decry Toll of Training of AI Models’, The Guardian, 2 August 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/aug/02/ai-chatbot-training-human-toll-contentmoderator-meta-openai. Moderators were underpaid (between $1.46 and $3.74 an hour) and forced to review violent, often explicit texts and images with no psychological support. Training Models on Compute Hosted Abroad and Modifying Models Developed Abroad                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       101 David Dale, ‘How to Fine-Tune a NLLB-200 Model for Translating a New Language’, Medium (blog), 17 October 2023, https://cointegrated.medium.com/how-to-fine-tune-a-nllb-200-model-for-translating-a-new-lan guage-a37fc706b865. 100 Jiawei Zheng et al., ‘Fine-Tuning Large Language Models for Domain-Specific Machine Translation’ (arXiv, 22 February 2024), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2402.15061. 99 ‘What Is Fine-Tuning?’, IBM, 15 March 2024, https://www.ibm.com/topics/fine-tuning. 98 ‘Masakhane – Pioneering Participatory Approaches to Building African Language Technologies, for Africans, by Africans’, Ars Electronica Festival 2023 - Who Owns the Truth? (blog), 2 September 2023, https://ars.electronica.art/who-owns-the-truth/en/masakhane/.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Access to Open Source Frontier Models                                                                                                                                                                                         Structured Access                                         104 Mistral AI's first model open-sourced its model weights, but after a $16 million investment from Microsoft, access to its latest model, Mistral Large, will remain restricted. This is motivated chiefly by commercial interests. Mistral cofounder Arthur Mensch said in an interview with Le Monde, ‘We started with open source models, which anyone can deploy for free because that's a way of distributing them widely and creating demand. But from the outset, we have provided a business model with [the most powerful] optimised models’. He added that ‘commercial activity’ will allow the company ‘to finance the costly research required for model development’. https://www.euronews.com/next/2024/02/26/microsoft-partners-with-french-ai-start-up-mistral -ai-as-it-unveils-new-ai-tool 103 The Mosaic Research Team, ‘Introducing DBRX: A New State-of-the-Art Open LLM’, Databricks (blog), 27 March 2024, https://www.databricks.com/blog/introducing-dbrx-new-state-art-open-llm. 102 ‘Llama 3.1’, Meta Llama, n.d., https://www.llama.com/.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             105 Toby Shevlane, ‘Structured Access: An Emerging Paradigm for Safe Ai Deployment’ (arXiv, 11 April 2022), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2201.05159; Benjamin S Bucknall and Robert F. Trager, ‘Structured Access for Third-Party Research on Frontier AI Models: Investigating Researchers’ Model Access Requirements’ (AI Governance Initiative, 2023), https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/publications/structured-access-for-third-party-research-on -frontier-ai-models-investigating-researchers-model-access-requirements.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     106 Christoph Bluth et al., ‘Civilian Nuclear Cooperation and the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons’, International Security 35, no. 1 (2010): 184–200, https://www.jstor.org/stable/40784651; This literature also highlights the danger that attempts to spread peaceful technology could further weapons programs; Matthew Fuhrmann, Atomic Assistance: How “Atoms for Peace” Programs Cause Nuclear Insecurity (Cornell University Press, 2012).                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             110 ‘United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)’, AI for Good, n.d., https://aiforgood.itu.int/about-ai-for-good/un-ai-actions/undp/. 109 UNESCO, ‘Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence’, 2021, https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/recommendation-ethics-artificial-intelligence. 108 Francesca Mazzi, Mariarosaria Taddeo, and Luciano Floridi, ‘AI in Support of the SDGs: Six Recurring Challenges and Related Opportunities Identified Through Use Cases’, in The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence for the Sustainable Development Goals, ed. Francesca Mazzi and Luciano Floridi (Springer Verlag, 2023), 9–33. 107 Jonas Tallberg et al., ‘The Global Governance of Artificial Intelligence: Next Steps for Empirical and Normative Research’, International Studies Review 25, no. 3 (2023): viad040, https://doi.org/10.1093/isr/viad040; Nathan Benaich and Ian Hogarth, ‘State of AI Report 2022’, 11 October 2022, https://www.stateof.ai/2022.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   114 UNESCO, ‘Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence’. 113 Shevlane, ‘Structured Access’; René von Schomberg, ‘A Vision of Responsible Research and Innovation’, in Responsible Innovation, ed. Richard Owen, John Bessant, and Maggy Heintz (John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2013), 51–74, https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118551424.ch3. 112 Francesca Mazzi and Luciano Floridi, eds., The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence for the Sustainable Development Goals (Springer Verlag, 2023); Josh Cowls et al., ‘The AI Gambit: Leveraging Artificial Intelligence to Combat Climate Change—Opportunities, Challenges, and Recommendations’, AI & Society 38, no. 1 (1 February 2023): 283–307, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-021-01294-x. 111 United Nations, ‘Governing AI for Humanity’ (United Nations AI Advisory Body, September 2024), https://www.un.org/en/ai-advisory-body.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       115 Robert Trager et al., ‘International Governance of Civilian AI: A Jurisdictional Certification Approach’ (arXiv, 11 September 2023), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2308.15514.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        118 Bluth et al., ‘Civilian Nuclear Cooperation and the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons’; Fuhrmann, Atomic Assistance. 117 Bucknall and Trager, ‘Structured Access for Third-Party Research on Frontier AI Models’. 116 Tallberg et al., ‘The Global Governance of Artificial Intelligence’; Bucknall and Trager, ‘Structured Access for Third-Party Research on Frontier AI Models’.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              123 Shevlane, ‘Structured Access’; Eoghan Stafford and Robert F. Trager, ‘The IAEA Solution: Knowledge Sharing to Prevent Dangerous Technology Races’ (Centre for the Governance of AI, 2022), https://www.governance.ai/research-paper/knowledge-sharing-to-prevent-dangerous-technolo gy-races. 122 Kulp et al., ‘Hardware-Enabled Governance Mechanisms’. 121 Wang et al., ‘All Languages Matter’; Jo and Gebru, ‘Lessons from Archives.’ 120 Department for Science, Innovation and Technology, ‘AI Safety Summit: Introduction’, GOV.UK, 31 October 2023, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ai-safety-summit-introduction.; Markus Anderljung et al., ‘Towards Publicly Accountable Frontier LLMs: Building an External Scrutiny Ecosystem under the ASPIRE Framework’ (arXiv, 15 November 2023), https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2311.14711.  Trager et al., ‘International Governance of Civilian AI.’                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 124 Bommasani et al., ‘On the Opportunities and Risks of Foundation Models’; Okolo, ‘AI in the Global South: Opportunities and Challenges Towards More Inclusive Governance’.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      125 ‘The A4AI Affordability Report’, Alliance for Affordable Internet, 10 August 2022, https://a4ai.org/research/affordability-report/.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     130 ‘Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy’ (African Union, July 2024), https://au.int/en/documents/20240809/continental-artificial-intelligence-strategy. 129‘Bosun Tijani, ‘Nigeria Announces Multillingual LLM, Computing Infrastructure and AI Collective’, LinkedIn, 19 April 2024, https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/nigeria-announces-multillingual-llm-computing-ai-dr-bosun-ti jani-fy8ve/. 128 Matthew Shanahan and Kalvin Bahia, ‘The State of Mobile Internet Connectivity Report 2023’ (GSMA, October 2023), https://www.gsma.com/r/somic/. 127 Jo and Gebru, ‘Lessons from Archives’. 126 ‘G20 Digital Ministers Recognize Digital Public Infrastructure as an Accelerator of the SDGs’, UNDP, 19 August 2023, https://www.undp.org/india/press-releases/g20-digital-ministers-recognize-digital-public-infras tructure-accelerator-sdgs; ‘The Third Phase of the G20 Data Gaps Initiative (DGI-3) Starts to Deliver Insights for Action’, IMF, 8 November 2023, https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2023/11/08/pr23385-the-third-phase-of-the-g20-data-gaps -initiative-dgi-3-starts-deliver-insights-action.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         